What is the Scientific Method within Science?
Role of Methodology in the Social Sciences:

• Does it differ in social sciences, natural sciences and humanities?

• If so, what is the difference?

Approaches to Interpretation and Explanation:
> the role and quality of Evidence:

Deduction from known and "lawlike" principles in which the "explanatory premises" do not formally imply their explicanda...

Functional or Teleological explanations, in which statements are made about the "functions (or even dysfunctions) that a unit performs in maintaining or realizing certain traits of a system to which the unit belongs, or of stating the instrumental role an action plays in bringing about some goal"

Genetic or Historical explanations, "which set out the major events through which some earlier system has been transformed into a later one"

Modes of Explanation and Truth (Nagel, The Structure
of Science)

• What is Truth in the Sciences and Humanities?

• Objective vs. Subjective Reality?

Aims of the Social Sciences:

1. Explanation vs. Prediction vs. Understanding

   • Deductive explanations - formal logic

   • Probabilistic explanations

2. Understanding

   • Verstehen tradition (empathy) - historical and subjective

   • Predictive understanding (logical empiricism)

System of explicit rules and procedures, i.e. roles of:

• INFERENCE

• EVIDENCE

• REPLICATION

• CONSTRUCTIVE CRITICISM

• RULES FOR REASONING

• RULES FOR INTERSUBJECTIVITY - VALIDATION

 

The Scientific and Scholarly Research Process:

Phases in the Research Process:

• Description (what, when, where)

• Classification (what is similar/different)

• Explanation (how and why)

• Prediction (what will be)

• Prescription (what should be)**

**Policy and operations research - see below which includes:

• Ethical analysis (norms/standards)

• Policy formulation

• Testing

• Evaluation

• Valuation

• Visioning

Types of Reasoning and Analysis - Levels of Abstraction:
Concrete vs Abstract Learning:

• Inductive vs Deductive

• Idiographic vs. Nomothetic

  Idiographic = relating to or dealing with something concrete, individual, or unique)

  vs.

  Nomothetic = relating to, involving, or dealing with abstract, general, or universal statements or laws

 

The Role of Concepts i.e. Propositions - Theories - Models - Conceptual and Interpretive Frameworks:

KEY TERMS:

-Concepts are abstractions from concrete observations" (conceptual frameworks)

-Propositions are statements of interrelationships among concepts"

-Theories - grand, middle, unproved (speculation), etc...

-Laws:

a) statement of an order or relation of phenomena that so far as is known is invariable under the given conditions

b) a general relation proved or assumed to hold between mathematical or logical expressions

-Hypotheses: "a set of statements about relationships that has been established with some degree of confidence" (a conjectural statement)

-Instrumentation - methods of meaurement

-Paradyms are an an outstandingly clear or typical example or archetype

....a philosophical and theoretical framework of a scientific school or discipline within which theories, laws, and generalizations and the experiments performed in support of them are formulated; broadly : a philosophical or theoretical framework of any kind (Merriam-Webster Dictionary).

Scientific Revolutions:

Routine / normal science

vs.

Revolutionary science

• Paradigm (normal) - enduring group of adherents & open-ended (many questions to tackle)
• Abrupt development of a rival paradigm - verification, anomalies,

Models and Systems Thinking...:

Theoretical systems, analogs, archetypes, examples--"scientific metaphors"

See = What is a Model and Types - SERC

A model is not the real world but merely a human construct to help us better understand real world systems. In general all models have an information input, an information processor, and an output of expected results.

See also - Modeling the Environment by Andrew Ford gives a philosophical discussion of what models are and why they are useful. The first few paragraphs of Chapter 1 of Ford's book are worth a look.

Key features in common with the development of any model is that:

• Simplifying assumptions must be made
• Boundary conditions or initial conditions must be identified
• Range of applicability of the model should be understood

Conceptual Models or Frameworks:

Graphic models of mental images of how things work within a given system or sub-system; propositions on how to explain relationships and linkages. These are less 'concrete' or 'proven' than a full theory (see also paradym).

Frameworks for defining problems, provides an indicator of component
parts, and relationship s among variables, outlines of assumptions, serves
as an organizational device/not necessarily with predictive value, etc.

Interpretive Paradymns

• Positivist,

• Modernist

• "Post" modern - post-positivist

• Constructivist

• Critical theoretical

• Feminist

• Marxist

• Idealist

• Realist

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Standards for Theories/Models:

• Clarity

• Freedom from contradiction

• Simplicity (minimize variables)

• Generalizability

• Accuracy (predictability and replicability)

• Verifiability

• Falsification

• Levels of abstraction...

Research Methods, Process and Strategy Issues:

Approaches/Methods:

• Universal vs Particular Behavior Systems-focus

• Obstrusive vs. Unobstrusive operations

• Qualitative vs. Quantitative Analysis

• Settings for research (natural, experimental, lab, simulated, etc.)

Examples:

• Computer simulations
• Field studies
• Field experiments
• Experimental simulations
• Laboratory experiments
• Judgment tasks
• Sample surveys
• Formal theory development

Methods in Qualitative research:

• Case study

• personal experience

• Introspective

• Life story

• Interview

• Observation

• Historical analysis

• Textual analysis

• Interactional

• Visual analysis

Data Collection, Measurement, Instrumentation:

-Reliability vs. Validity of measurement

-Primary vs. secondary data sources

-Numerical vs categorical

-Samples vs. populations > censuses

-Errors and bias

-Instrumentation & collection issues

 

MORE Issues - Meaning (Understanding and Insight)

vs. Explanation:

• Judgement vs speculation - role of searching, speculating and discovering

• Causes vs effects and means vs. ends?

• Truth and transparency (deception, placebo effect, etc)

• Usefulness (harm or benefit)

• Ethics and moral value

• Confidentiality / anonymity / privacy

• Advocacy in the sciences

Policy Science: Decision-making and Management Research:

Policy Research - "strategic" policy-making - analysis of "conscious choice processes" - choosing from competing alternatives - pattern of purposive/goal-oriented choice and action

Pattern of action, extensing over time involving many decisions, some routine and others not so routine. Focused on "problems" and the formulation of policies (strategic) to combat problems.

Operations and Evaluation research - focused on implementation and monitoring effects of policies and implementation or management issues - "routine" - focused on "decision-making" etc...

Types of policies:

• Stated vs. implied

• Perceived or actual (what is actually done)

Approaches to Policy Science:

• Prescriptive or normative = how policy-making should occur relative to preestablished standards - e.g.

  -rational (optimizing) or "ideal" vs.
  -satisficing - (muddling through) - "what works"

• Descriptive: describes the way policy process actually occurs

Satisficer/adaptive

Pluralist (ecclectic)

• Other approaches:

-elitist
-bureaucratic
-incrementalist
-regulatory
-customary
-revolutionary
-etc

.

Participants and Roles in the Policy Process: Decision-makers, Clients, Users, Customers,...

.

-Decision-makers
-Analysts
-Community
-Constituencies
-Publics
-Users
-Customers
-Clients
-Victims
-Beneficiaries
-etc.

 

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